AN APPRAISAL OF THE ROLE OF MEDIA IN COUNTERINSURGENCY OPERATIONS: A CASE STUDY OF THE IMPACT OF MEDIA SURVEILLANCE ON BOKO HARAM TERRORIST ATTACKS, 2009-2017
ABSTRACT
This study assessed selected media campaigns used in the on-going Counter Terrorism and Counter Insurgency Operations in North East Nigeria. The essence of this research was inspired by the renewed onslaught of Boko Haram activities on soft targets, the use of minors for suicide mission as well as a new tactics of ‘forcefully conscripting’ youths into their fold. The war has been ideological with a surplus application of bullet approach and suicide mission in some instances. War with such parameters needs a more robust approach; a combination of gun and awareness creation to conquer or subdue the spread of the ideology. The research work therefore, sought to examine the patterns, tones and content of media campaigns against Boko Haram. Discourse analysis and observation methods were employed in the study. Data was collected from the media campaigns broadcast on radio and television and placed on billboards and results showed that the media campaigns mainly portrayed Boko Haram as anti-Islam; and emphasised on the need for citizens to be security conscious by reporting suspected members of the sect to the nearest security outfit. Public knowledge on security consciousness has increased. There is clarity of information in the messages and contained central messages like ‘stop killing, repent and surrender your weapons’. The media campaigns were mainly produced in local languages; Hausa, Kanuri and Shuwa Arab. This study recommended that ethical issues like portraying minors involved in perpetrating the heinous acts and exceeding the conventional 60 seconds time limit for radio and television jingles should be considered while producing the media campaigns.
CHAPTER 1 -INTRODUCTION
- BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
The conduct of this research was inspired by the renewed onslaught of Boko Haram activities on soft targets, the use of minors for suicide mission as well as a new tactics of forcefully conscripting youths into their fold. Amnesty International as cited by Sahara Reporters [1] estimates that about 223 Nigerians have been killed in attacks since April, with 100 killed in August alone. Boko Haram has abducted 67 people, mostly young women and girls, in Nigeria in the same time frame. Warner and Matfess as cited by CNN analyzed the 434 suicide bombings carried out by Boko Haram since 2011, and found that at least 244 of the 338 attacks in which the bomber’s gender could be identified were carried out by women [2]. The group has sent 80 women to their deaths in 2017 alone.
Over the years, media campaigns have been increasingly used, in an attempt to change the narrative and shape the behaviour of youths perceived to be the main target of indoctrination or forcefully recruited by the Boko Haram Terrorists (BHTs). Notably, such campaigns are geared towards enhancing civil-military relationship, surveillance and also an ‘all inclusive approach’ to end the guerrilla or ideological war. Typical of such campaigns, have been repeated consistently on radio and television (public and privately owned) stations, inform of public announcements and have reached a significant Nigerian population and beyond including perpetrators of the terrorism acts at a time. These campaigns have also been replicated on outdoor media like fliers, billboards and posters.
Since the inception of the Boko Haram crisis in Borno State, North-East Nigeria, from 2009 to date, there have been a variety of antiterrorism campaigns emanating from the military and the federal government through the Ministry of Information and Culture or National Orientation Agency (NOA). The Nigerian Armed Forces who are leading the Counter-Insurgency and Counter-Terrorism Operations in the North East are faced with a series of challenges especially facing the ‘unknown enemy’ — since he has no any sign to depict his true identity and betrayal from their sympathisers (host community). The lack of cooperation between the military and civil populace constitute yet another setback to the fight against terrorism.
Media campaigns are created to get a message to the target audience and try to influence the behaviour of this audience in some desired way. A media campaign is defined as the universe of measures in order to fulfil a specific objective. They are series of coordinated messages or other promotional efforts placed on media, purposely designed to achieve a certain goal of objective.
It is not arguable that campaign is a public relations tool used by many institutions, countries and corporate bodies to relate with their public. United State of America used such model in the Middle East to achieve certain goals in countries like Saudi Arabia, Lebanon and Yemen. Such was also demonstrated by international companies, nation states and security bodies. In Nigeria for instance, the war against Boko Haram in the north east has prompted the military not to only focus on the ‘Gun war’ but the ideological confrontation as well as force applied by the insurgents to recruit the vulnerable villagers. This was the propeller for the establishment of ‘Lafiya Dole Radio’ coined from the Theatre of Operation of the Nigerian Army in the North-East. Several campaigns that run on the station are said to promote counter-terrorists ideologies, civil-military relationship and reconcile between the aggrieve parties. The establishment of the station and further design of campaign prompted the need to conduct this study.
1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
The Boko Haram insurgency has been ideological with a surplus application of bullet approach and suicide mission in some instances. Globally, war with such parameters needs a more robust approach using not only the powers of gun, but combining the powers of ideological apparatus to conquer or subdue the spread of the ideology through awareness creation. Scholars have no doubt developed interest in the activities of the BHTs. However, areas of focus by most researchers such as Islam, Kabir and Ganiyu [3,4] was tilted towards coverage of Boko Haram by Nigerian newspapers, historical evolution of the crisis, exploding stereotype and use of suicide bombers, Boko Haram threat and so on. Commercialization otherwise the ‘let them pay’ policy has hindered media campaigns specifically for the fight against Boko Haram. This is so because the Nigerian media (public and private owned) depend solely on the sales of airtime for the daily running of the organizations.
In Spite of these challenges, the Nigerian media have continued to take part in creating awareness on the heinous activities of the group and the need to support security agencies defeat the common enemy. However, there is no known analysis to evaluate these media campaigns specifically geared towards the fight against Boko Haram Insurgency. Premised on this insufficiency, the study set out to ascertain and assess the patterns, tones, themes as well as the frequency to which they are broadcast on Nigerian Television Authority and Radio Lafiya Dole, in the wake of Boko Haram insurgency.
1.3 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
Specifically, three (3) research questions have been formulated for this study, viz:
• To analyse the patterns and content of media campaigns against Boko Haram,
• To find out the tones and themes of the media campaigns against Boko Haram,
• To find out the frequency of media campaigns broadcast on Radio Lafiya Dole and Nigerian Television Authority (NTA).
Research Questions
The following research questions will guide this study:
• What are the patterns of media campaigns used in the fight against Boko Haram?
• What are the tones and themes of the media campaigns against Boko Haram?
• At what frequency are these campaigns broadcast on Lafiya Dole Fm and Nigerian Television Authority (NTA)?
1.4 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
The issue in the fight against Boko Haram Insurgency and terrorism is whether or not the gun approach alone can suffice. The media plays a pivotal role in forming people’s attitude and change in behaviour. The Boko Haram Insurgency and other conflicts bedevilling Nigeria, has indeed reawaken media managers and other relevant stakeholders on their roles in curbing the menace that has taken its toll on the socio-economic activities of the country. From early 2015 to 2017, the media has been playing an essential role in increasing society’s awareness of, and response to, Boko Haram.
The outcome of this research will be of immense important to the entire media organizations and the Nigerian Armed Forces in particular. It will give an empirical data to the military, who have been taking the lead in the de-radicalization process so as to enhance the program. The identification of the content and themes of the messages will help the media build on a more persuading, ethically considerable campaigns that can change or counter the narrative. Also, it is hopeful that this study will give insight to the military and other stakeholders on the importance of media in tackling armed conflict like the BH.
This study shall therefore attempt to highlight and discuss the rudiments of developing a media campaign, its noticeable patterns, types and structures and of course, the effective use of these campaigns in behavioural and attitudinal changes. Considering the virginity of the issue and insufficiency of vast and objective literature from the perspective of the host community, this research will add to the existing few literature and help researchers who might develop interest to conduct research in future on similar area with literature from a different thought. Ndolo (2011) posits that the media promote national interests and certain behaviours especially in critical or emergency situations and during times of national crises. He went further by maintaining that they not only advance national interests in the spheres of politics, war, economic development, work, religion and sports but also mobilize the populace against unpopular policies and dictatorial regimes. The above quote has unequivocally created the window for this study.
1.5 SCOPE OF THE STUDY
The study will take a look at the jingles produced in English and Hausa languages and broadcast on Nigerian Television Authority (NTA) and Radio Lafiya Dole for a period of two years (from December 2015-December 2017). The Nigerian military and the Federal Ministry for Information and Culture have been up to speed in producing media messages aimed at creating awareness on the dangers of the Boko Haram sect, through the portrayal of their heinous activities using videos, pictures and sounds. The idea behind this delimitation of boundaries is to avoid embarking on an unmanageable venture as Ohaja [5] opines.
CHAPTER 2 – REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
Concept of media campaigns
Mass Media campaigns simply put are verbal or non-verbal communication drafted in form of spot announcements, jingles or short messages that reach members of public through the channels of communication. The channels can be radio, television, social media, newspapers, magazines, leaflets, billboards and even books. Southwell and Yzer [6] noted that contemporary media campaigns have featured advertisements, public service announcements, and, more recently, Internet-based tools and other interactive digital applications. Wakefield et al. [7] noted that the great promise of mass media campaigns lies in their ability to disseminate well defined behaviourally focused messages to large audiences repeatedly, over time, in an incidental manner, and at a low cost per head.
Alexander and Hanson [8] posits that;
Not long ago, ‘mass’ media referred to messages that were created by large organizations for broad, heterogeneous audiences. The concept no longer suffices for contemporary media environment. Yes ‘mass’ media still exist in forms of radio, television, film and general interest newspapers and magazines; but many media forms today are hybrids of “mass” and “personal” media technologies that open a new realm of understanding about how audience process the meaning of messages.
Media campaigns, an offshoot of public communication campaign; may involve a conventional mix of brochures, posters, advertisements, and commercials or a different array of communication methods for the purpose of achieving certain objectives. Public communication campaign as defined by Rice and Atkin [9] is a purposive attempt to inform or influence behaviours in large audience within a specified period of time, using an organized set of communication activities and featuring an array of mediated messages in multiple channels generally to produce non-commercial benefits to individuals and society. Mediated messages here imply that the messages pass through the channels of communication.
In evaluating media messages, Krueger [10] noted that the best way to achieve media literacy is to evaluate all the messages that bombard you. Ask these questions to understand the message:
• Who created, or paid for, the message? The company, group or institution that creates a media message or that pays for the creation of a message has a reason or motive. Who is the target audience? Message producers direct their message to specific groups. When the producers want to reach several groups, they typically produce separate messages targeted at each group.
• What is the product? Media messages, especially in advertising, have something to promote. Usually, the product or service is obvious; sometimes, the product or service isn’t clear until the end of the message.
• What are the direct messages? Direct messages are easy to identify. They include the name of the product and price, and its benefits to the consumer are stated explicitly in text, dialogue or voice-overs.
• What are the indirect messages? Indirect messages are not stated directly, either in text, dialogue or voice-overs. These messages may be just as powerful as the direct messages.
• What is omitted from the message? In advertising, messages often highlight the positive qualities of their product, service or cause. They downplay any negative qualities. Often, they just don’t talk about anything that would cause consumers to dislike what the message is promoting. Ask yourself what is missing from any message you read, see or hear.
Media campaigns for behavioral and attitudinal change
In situations like that of Boko Haram crisis, media messages are driven by an agenda-persuasion. Persuasion is a form of communication that takes place on a daily basis within our society. It is a term that is used when one is attempting to get another to change their mind set or action in one form or another. Persuasive communication is any message that is intended to shape, reinforce, or change the responses of another or others. Such responses are modified by symbolic transactions (messages) which are sometimes, but not always, linked with coercive force (indirectly coercive) and which appeal to the reason and emotions of the target [11].
Mass media campaign is a critical tool in behaviour and attitudinal change. Early in the history of media studies, it was believed messages conveyed by media had tremendous power to influence people’s attitude and behaviour. This power has remained up to this moment, even though not all audience receive the messages at a time. Media campaigns may also involve the use of propaganda that is manipulation of information to influence public opinion which may result to change in behaviour and attitude. However, war itself implies the use of propaganda to defeat the common enemy. Propaganda according to Baran and Davis (2006) refers to the no-holds-barred use of communication to propagate specific beliefs and expectations. The ultimate goal of propaganda is to change the way people act and also persuade or scare others into adopting their beliefs, whether it’s political, religious or philosophical.
The outcomes of behavioural and attitudinal change vary in proportion to such factors as the dose of information, qualitative potency of messages and the proper integration of mass media. For media campaigns to attain a strong impact on behavioural and attitudinal change, exposure of audience to such messages is critical. Audience must also have access to the media by which the message passed through.
Strategic Approaches
Prevention
In seeking to influence behaviour and attitude, media campaigns maybe tilted towards promoting positive behaviours (like being a law abiding citizen, sanctity of human lives, avoiding indecent dressing among others) to avoid chaos. Atkin and Rice [12] noted that traditionally, prevention campaigns fear appeals to focus attention on negative consequences of a detrimental practice rather promoting the desirability of a positive alternative.
The fear appeal in the prevention approach can be divided into two approaches: the threat and recommendation approach. In the threat approach, messages should present the risk information especially the severity of the risk and the individual’s susceptibility to this particular risk. The recommendation approach on the other hand should present information on the recommended behaviour to cope with the risk; the response efficacy – the effectiveness of the recommendation in removing the threat, and self-efficacy, which refers to the individual’s capability to enact the recommended behaviour. The issue of Boko Haram engaging minors (females) as suicide bombers is a detrimental practice by the group. Using the fear appeal approach can lead to audience scepticism; caution them on the deterrence and in the long champion the change in the behaviour and attitude of the audience.
Message content
Content of media messages can generally be informative, educative or persuasive. Awareness messages simply inform the audience what to do and how it should be done. Awareness messages give cues and answers to what, who, where and how questions while persuasive messages covers the ‘why’ aspect. Persuasive messages advocates and give answers to why this is a preferable or acceptable action and attitude. Media campaigns based anchored on persuasion come along with incentives to attract the audience change their attitudes and behaviours. For instance, the Boko Haram fighters leaving in the dreaded Sambisa Forest can be persuaded to stop killing and be re-integrated to the society by granting them amnesty and psycho-socio support.
It is however important to note that Boko Haram fighters that are too extreme in their ideology consider the government and military as ‘enemies’. The messages may also be regarded as offensive, sometimes boring, full of deceit, lies, misleading and a counter to their own understanding. Therefore, the impact of the media campaign on the extreme members might take a longer period to become effective, even though it is aimed at the members of the public including potential recruits, who are ‘pleased’ with the actions of the group members.
Why campaign on Boko Haram
Like any other terrorist group in the 21st century, Boko Haram insurgent group, aside being the most deadliest has resort to seizing some advantages to recruit people of vulnerable features. However, this does not mean there is absent use of channels of mass communication to spread their ideologies. The group was known with high syllogism and good public speakers capable of convincing locals to join the terrorists groups. It is also notable as reported by some media outlets that some parents after being convinced by the terrorist or otherwise forced into the act, donate their children to be used for suicide mission. This adversely constituted a situation whereby the group (Boko Haram) continues to gain followers in the region.
Moreover, the group’s link to international terrorist organisations like ISIS and Al-Qaeda signalled a very horrible and atrocious ideological support that could infer more harm to the people. Similarly, it provides for possibilities of the bigger organisations to support them with arms and strategies. In the same vein, the U.S declaration of Boko Haram as terrorist group added a huge thought provoking analysis to the situation in the North- East and status of the group. It is then realised by the military, government, civil society groups and the general public that the force application is not enough to win the war within a realistic period of time. Moreover, the scenario of Boko Haram establishes a situation whereby many people are frustrated and aggrieved which further presented a possibility of more tragedy. This situation also needs to be arrested before it surface to cause mayhem.
Linking the above fact with another line of issue that prompted for campaigns against terrorist ideologies is the inadequacy of television channels and radio stations. The available media as at the outbreak of the crisis was Nigerian Television Authority, Borno Radio Television and Peace FM. This is too meagre to handle information and communication needs of the people of the state. It is out of these and more that radio station was established, to give room for more campaigns to flow and reach higher number of listeners.
The Nigerian Television Authority being a government owned outfit, was set on the pace of the counter-terrorism media campaign. It was a joint effort between the National Orientation Agency and Ministry of Information and Culture. The central campaign was tagged “Nigeria Unite against Terrorism”. Another concerted effort was initiated in the Lafiya Dole Radio, which broadcast campaign and programmes about the success of the Nigerian Army in the fight against Boko Haram as well as effort of government to reconcile between people. There was also campaign which targeted to sensitize people to report suspicious movement and people to security operatives and abstain from embracing any ideology alien to their own or that which they have no knowledge on.
Theoretical Framework
The study adopted two theories namely; Symbolic Interactionism and deterrence theory.
Symbolic interactionism
George Herbert Mead, an influential professor of philosophy, pioneered the development of this theory. The word symbolic interactionism was coined by Blumer, Mead’s chief disciple in 1969. It is the process of interaction in the formation of meanings for individuals. It is the on-going use of language and gestures, in anticipation of how the others will react, a conversation. Blumer [13] states that symbolic interactionism rests on three premises: that human beings act toward things on the basis of the meanings of things has for them; that the meaning of such things derives from the social interaction one has with one’s fellows; and that these meanings are handled in, and modified through, an interpretive process.
The basic idea this theory put forward is that people behave based on the meaning they have given to things or persons. The symbolic interactionism analysed society by the descriptive meanings that people have given to objects, events and behaviours. The behavioural pattern of the people will be based on these descriptive meanings because people behave according to their descriptive believes rather than objective truth. According to Baran and Davis [14], Social interactionism is a theory that people give meaning to symbols and those meanings come to them. Thus, it posits that our actions in response to symbols are mediated (or controlled) largely by those same symbols.
This theory helps media researchers better understand the field because of the important role the media plays in creating and propagating shared symbols. Because of the media’s power, it can construct symbols on its own. By using symbolic interactionism theory, researchers can look at the ways media affects a society’s shared symbols and, in turn, the influence of those symbols on the individual [15].
Deterrence theory
The deterrence theory of punishment can be traced to the early works of classical philosophers such as Thomas Hobbes (1588- 1678), Cesare Beccaria (1738-1794), and Jeremy Bentham (1748- 1832). Together, these theorists protested against the legal policies that had dominated European thought for more than a thousand years, and against the spiritualistic explanations of crime on which they were founded. In addition, these social contract thinkers provided the foundation for modern deterrence theory in criminology.
Paternoster and Bachman [16], states that we are affected by both the costs and rewards that are consequent to our behaviour. In other words, we tend to behave based on the expectation that we will receive some type of reward for doing it while hoping to avoid some type of punishment for not doing it or doing something else.
The theory of deterrence that has developed from the work of Hobbes, Beccaria, and Bentham relies on three individual components: severity, certainty, and celerity. The more severe a punishment, it is thought, the more likely that a rationally calculating human being will desist from criminal acts. To prevent crime, therefore, criminal law must emphasize penalties to encourage citizens to obey the law. Punishment that is too severe is unjust, and punishment that is not severe enough will not deter criminals from committing crimes.
Applicability of the theories
Symbolic Interactionism: One way the media uses symbol to affect the individual is advertising and commercials. When the media uses pictures of explosives and scenes of bomb blasts, what comes to the minds of the mass audience is the unethical, unreligious and unacceptable culture of killing innocent lives. The audience therefore thinks of an image of a Boko Haram member, who is bent on killing innocent people using guns or improvised explosives devices. A gun in reality can mean weapon. An armoured vehicle or the presence of troops in the North East may symbolise the strength of Nigerian Army in protecting innocent lives and property. The presence of Boko Haram flag in local communities on the other hand may mean that Boko Haram fighters are in total control of that territory.
Deterence Theory: in 2017, a federal high court sitting in Niger State, begun the trial of suspected Boko Haram fighters. Die hard fighters who have refused to heed to the governments advice of surrendering themselves and their fire arms to security operatives nearest to them will have themselves to be blame in the event they get caught.
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